In the Savannah country, there are ebony and other hard woods. In the forest regions there are different species of mahogany, and other carvable woods like the osese (Holarrbena Wluffsbergii) which is extensively used in Ashanti. The woodcarver usually prefers to work with semi‑dry wood as in that state it is easier to do so with the simple tools available to him.

The African carver has great respect for the wood he uses for his work. A tree is considered a living thing with life of its own, which is only interrupted when it has to be cut down and removed from its original abode for the purpose of fashioning an object of equally high significance.

The wood‑carver who carves an object which is meant to be used for a religious rite will search through the forest for the particular type of tree which may command the respect worthy of the work it is intended for. Libation may be poured and some rites performed before the tree is felled, and throughout his work he is aware that the spirit of the tree is being invoked as an agent through which the new object is supposed to do its work.

The tree is cut up into required lengths and covered with leaves and left for a couple of weeks for the raw sap to drain from the wood.

The artist's tools are very simple and consist of a cutlass, adzes, some home‑made chisels and knives and it is surprising what a magnificent result he achieves with these humble tools.

He works in the bush far removed from disturbance and interference, and returns home with the finished work after several sessions. Sometimes he builds a shed covered with palm leaves for protection from the weather, and sits on a low block of wood to do his carving. He usually works by ,securing the piece being carved between the feet, and hacks away with his matchet and adzes. He never uses a vice.

The finish of the work varies with the individual artist and also from region to region. Some woodcarvers look for a smooth finish which they obtain by using sand‑paper or the leaves of a special type of tree which produce the same effect. Sometimes the carving is decorated with scarification, which the carver burns in on the wood or incises with a sharp knife. One can identify the origin of a piece of work by the incisions and decorations made on the body, which are usually those of a particular tribe. For example, one can always tell a Yoruba work by the tribal markings on the face. A carving may be painted with colour, usually earth colours mixed with yoke of egg or gum as medium. Dyes from roots and barks of trees are sometimes used for staining the carved object. Some carvings are polished with a mixture of soot and fat to obtain a jet black effect and also preserve the works from the weather and termites. Regrettably many works of art have perished only after a few years as a result of these factors.

Even important works used for religious rites or belonging to the chief's paraphernalia have all been subject to the action of woodworm, termite and the humid atmosphere. Some modern carvers have started using the insecticide DDT to counteract the action of pests, but this is not widespread. There again, the traditional wood‑carver is rather conservative and would prefer to keep to his old methods.

In some regions, as with the Ekoi in South Eastern Nigeria, the mask or carving is covered with sheep's leather to give it a real human look.

It may be interesting to classify works into two main categories ‑figures and masks.

One general characteristic of wooden figures is their cylindrical form. This is because the artist tries to maintain the cylindrical form of the tree trunk from

which the object is carved, It will be found that in most of the works the legs and the arms are kept lose to the body in order to achieve the cylindrical effect  This makes most African works look rather static  .

It is fact the head in particular and the body in varying degrees which give the traditional works of art their dynamic and forthright effect. The African carver usually makes the head proportionally bigger than other parts of the body, and spends a lot of time on details, like hair‑do, facial expression and tribal scarification, There are emphases on the breasts, the genitals, the buttocks and the calves of the leg. The lower limbs are on the whole proportionately short. All these give the African figure a unique characteristic of its own.

These are used extensively in Africa in connection with religious rites, secret societies and for pure entertainment. In the area covered by this introduction, the following tribes excel in the making and use of masks: the Baga, Baule, Mende, Dan, Dogon, Ekoi, Guro, Ibibio, Ibo and Yoruba.

Masks are usually made to look dramatic. The design is forceful and bold, as in the darkness or subdued light in which it is usually worn it must be able to convey the awe and mystical dignity for which it is intended. A mask is sometimes painted with colour to add more to the dramatic effect. Colours usually used are black, white, red and brown.

The Guro and the Dogon usually paint their masks. The Baga on the other hand polish their masks black. There is no general rule as to whether a mask must be painted or not. It is the purpose for which it is intended that may dictate this. A long skirt made of grass and raffia is usually attached to the mask, which covers the whole body of the wearer. Some masks are worn over the head, but there are others like the 'Nimba' mask of the Baga which are huge and have to be worn over the shoulders, with the body of the wearer covered by the grass skirt.

During ceremonies and rites, the spirit of the god or deity is supposed to enter both mask and wearer, who becomes possessed and involuntarily performs the dictates of the deity.

It has been already explained in a previous chapter the position of ancestral worship in most African societies. The place of ancestral figures is equally important. Thus, the wood‑carver devotes all his skill in fashioning these figures, which are later sanctified for the abode of the departed spirit. Similarly, objects carved and supposedly charged with some spiritual and magical powers are carved under special canons. They are often preserved by a covering of a mixture of soot and eggs, and dried in the sun until they are leather‑dry, before they are installed in the place of worship.

ln certain indigenous African societies there are some individuals who through their deeds are looked upon as supernatural, and considered by people as agents through whom the supreme being manifests his power. They are supposed to perform magical feats and are also endowed with the gift of healing and curing the sick. These people, generally referred to as priests, collect a group of young people around them and train them in mysticism and the art of healing. Often a shrine is built and gradually a collection of fetishes or objects supposed to have some magical power begins to grow. Most of these objects are carved by the artist, after which they are sanctified and dedicated as symbols through which the supreme being communicates with man.

There is another important movement that plays an invaluable role in the life of certain tribal communities. This is the 'Secret Society'. There are different kinds of these societies. Some are exclusively men's societies and others are women's. But there are also other societies to which both

sexes may belong. Some exist for special cults and the worship of certain deities. There are secret societies for the security of the State in which the defence of the Society and means of thwarting the evil plans of enemies form the main basic focus.

Secret societies for the initiation of youngsters into fully fledged membership of the community also form an important organ of society. In these they are educated in the social laws, common ethics and morality. Their duties and rights as members of the community are highlighted and they go through a series of religious rites before they are finally accepted as first class members, fit to bear arms and defend their tribe in case of danger.

Wherever these secret societies exist the artist is kept busy as masks and objects used in connection with the rites have to be carved. It is believed that masks and other accoutrements used during these ceremonies help to perpetuate the supernatural vital force and also revitalise the ideas of life‑creation, conception, puberty, death, fertility and power.

The Baule form one of the groups who set off from the main Kingdom of Ghana after its collapse. They settled with the Akan group but later broke off with the Ashanti and moved into the Ivory Coast to be neighbours with the Guro and the Senufo at the beginning of the eighteenth century.

They took with them the art of working in brass by the cire‑perdue process of casting which they had learnt from the Ashantis. When they finally settled, they developed the art of wood‑carving to high aesthetic dimensions. Much of their art was devoted to religion, worship of the Supreme God of the Heavens, and the lesser gods‑the Earth Goddess, the God of the Wind and other deities, some of which bear remarkably similar names to those of the Ashanti. Their art of representation is very extraordinary, with extremely detailed hair styles and ornamentation, especially when important personages are portrayed.

The Kingdom of Ashanti which became an important power among the Akan Group has been of great cultural interest for the past two and a half centuries. With the accession of King Osei Tutu in 1700 the Kingdom of Ashanti rose steadily until the end of the nineteenth century, when its power was broken by the British Government. Guided by Okomfo Anokye, a state priest and wise counsellor, who is supposed to have invoked from heaven the famous Golden Stool of Ashanti which it is believed contains the soul of the nation, King Osei Tutu laid the foundations of his kingdom.

Osei Tutu embarked upon expanding his kingdom through a series of military campaigns and negotiations. Successive Ashanti kings followed in the steps of this famous king and within a century

the nation was a dreaded power to the people of the coastal regions and their 'trader allies' who had built forts along the coast to carry out their trade in gold, ivory and slaves.

The Ashanti and the Akan in general held the concept of the one omnipotent God or 'Nyame', who is the creator of all things and King of the Heavens, and 'Asase Yaa', the Goddess of the Earth. There are other deities through whom the Great One manifests himself, like rivers, lakes and some physical phenomena. The Ashanti practised ancestor worship and had great reverence for departed spirits who had carried their work into the other world, still guiding and guarding the soul of the nation.

The king represented the Sun and his symbol was gold. The queen‑mother represented the Moon and her symbol was silver. Thus at court, all articles of paraphernalia for the king's use were made of gold and for the queen‑mother's, silver. The splendour at court called for artists in gold and silver to make innumerable ornaments, and wood‑carvers to make the different types of stools which were the symbols of authority. There were also special weavers of the traditional cloth, the 'Kente', who designed exquisite patterns for the king and his court and for respective clans.

Court artists and craftsmen held a respectable position in society. It was a great honour to be called the chief wood­carver to the king.

Ceremonial rites for certain important days of the year, like the 'Adae' Festival of purification, provided the opportunity for works of art to be used.

The Ashanti at the peak of their power had a very unique system of weights and measures and a monetary system. Gold dust was the foundation of trade and various units of weight were designed and

registered at the king's treasury which formed the basis of exchange. These are what are now widely referred to as 'Ashanti gold‑weights' which are little figures and geometrical shapes made of brass by the cire‑perdue process of casting.

It would be unrealistic to limit cultural development in this area to the Ashanti. North of Ashanti live the Bron who in the early times before the Ashanti became a nation had a lively kingdom with a progressive culture. It was from them that the Ashanti learnt the art of weaving and shared the concepts of the Cosmos.

The Fanti, Akim and the Akwamu of the Akan group all hold customary rites and religious beliefs similar to those of the Ashanti, and speak dialects of the same language‑a fact which confirms their common origin. They are all matrilineal groups in which the woman holds an important place in the society, Children inherit through the female line, with the uncle (mother's brother) filling an important role. They belong to the clan to which the mother belongs. Thus in the court it is the queen‑mother's child who may succeed as king and not the king's son.

The Kingdom of Ashanti which was destroyed by the British has now been restored and Ashanti forms part of the new Republic of Ghana.

The Fong tribe in Dahomey, which is of Ewe origin, established itself as a kingdom of significance. It became a very important state in the slave trade as it was the source from which many Africans were sold into slavery to work in the cotton fields of America. It is, however, for its artistic attainments that it is to be remembered, as much artistic activity took place at the court of the king. There was brass_

Although African art now seems to be well known throughout the world it still holds a peculiar aura of mystery about it. It is therefore advisable for those who wish to enjoy and appreciate this unique form of art to try to understand the factors that have gone into its making.  One has to know what people or tribe has produced these works of art. and something of their culture, society structure, and history. Relating the geographical and vegetational conditions to the work produced can also prove interesting. It may, for example, be found that those who live in the forest areas generally carve in wood, and where soapstone and other types of carvable stone exist the artists turn their hands to the new material. In farming communities the artists choose subjects from the life around them; the animals and objects they are familiar with. In some places, where religion is deep‑rooted in

 the lives of the people, this forms the subject from which the artists derive inspiration for their works.

 Objects are produced which are vital for rites connected with their religious beliefs. These may be

 masks which are worn by those who take part in performances, or objects supposedly charged with

 magical powers, usually referred to as fetishes, which may be used in the rites. Where the community structure is built around ancestral worship, it is very common to see artists devoting a lot of talent to carving effigies and symbols of departed leaders. Africa is a large continent of extraordinary physical construction and vegetation. From the North, starting with a Mediterranean climate and vegetation, one passes into the Sahara Desert, and then to the Savannah, and finally the forest regions around the tropical belt. This process repeats itself in reverse as one goes southward through the Kalahari Desert to the Cape of Good Hope. As the topography and vegetation vary, so do the people vary. It is a continent made up of several racial and ethnic groups, and many linguistic and tribal communities.

It is interesting to note that African artistic activity has centerd particularly in the areas inhabited by Africans and migrated peoples. These may be found in the Savannah areas of West Africa and East Africa and the forest regions around the tropics.

These communities, after migrating several centuries ago and settling where they now are, have ceased to be nomadic or itinerant hunters, and have become a people dedicated to the land as agriculturalists. It might be also of some interest to know something of the early history of these ethnic groups. Evidence from skeletons and skulls of ancient man and other archaeological specimens dug up in Africa reveal that man has existed there since mankind began, and show great activity during the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic Ages.

Although there are few written records on the early history of the continent, it can safely be said that there was considerable activity during this period. A few ancient records make mention of the great Sahara Desert with caravans moving up and down, connecting trade between the advanced peoples of the Northern coastal belt of the Mediterranean ‑the Romans, Phoenicians, Greeks, Moors and Berbers‑on the one hand, and the people of the Savannah regions and forest belt south of the Sahara. The Sahara therefore was much more of a 'friend' than a barrier with its network of trade and cultural communications. Commercial relations with the African peoples of Africa brought influences of cultural importance with them. During the first millennium A.D. there was great activity in Western Sudan as a result of these contacts with the North. We now know of the great kingdoms of Western Sudan, founded by the conquering peoples of the North, and also of the resulting extensive migration of populations southward. There were the Kingdoms of Ghana and Mali and later the Songhai Kingdom which played their part in the trade, culture and civilization of Western Sudan.

Concurrent with developments in Western Sudan there were trade activities in Central Sudan along a route through Chad to the Niger and Congo.

From about the beginning of the fifteenth century contact with the European world emerged, bringing the Portuguese, Danish, Spanish, French, English, Dutch and German and other nations on the scene in West Africa, first in search of trade in gold, ivory and other indigenous products and later in the obnoxious slave trade which was eventually abolished with the help of philanthropists from the countries which had originated it.

The Kingdom of Ghana, with its capital of Kombi Saleh was founded in A.D. 3oo by the Fulani of Berber extraction, around the bend of the Niger in Western Sudan. Ancient records speak of its prosperity and its high standard of civilization during the 700 years of its existence. Under the pretext of a holy war against unbelievers the Almoravidi together with the Berber made many attacks on the Kingdom of Ghana. Abu Bekir ben Oman finally destroyed the Empire in A.D. 1076 and consequently entire populations started a migratory movement southward.

The Kingdom of Mali which was a purely African establishment held sway in Western Sudan in the eleventh century. It was noted for the great development in culture which followed the famous visit of the King, Mansa Musa, to Mecca. On his return the King brought scholars to his court and architects who built mosques and palaces. He had himself been converted to Islam. He built the University of Sankore which became celebrated for its great men of learning. After the period of Mansa Musa the Kingdom of Mali began to decline and a new power, the Empire of Songhai came to the fore.

The Kingdom of Songhai had been founded in about A.D. 69o and in course of time became a great power. Although the Songhai King had been converted to Islam in A.D. ioic, his subjects were granted freedom of worship by the liberal‑minded King. The chief city of Gao became a great trading centre for fish, salt and gold. Under Soni Alli and Mohamed Toure the Songhai Empire prospered, but it was Askia Mohamed who left by far the most significant mark. He strengthened the security of the Empire, set up an efficient administrative organization, and above all maintained a stable society by tolerating freedom of worship. Thus, alongside the worship of Islam, pagan tribes were permitted to carry on with their own beliefs and ancestor worship. The Empire was destroyed towards the end of the sixteenth century by Moroccan forces. During this period there was a series of migrations southward'‑from the main locus of activity around the upper Niger bend to the forest regions where peace‑loving communities then settled. And lastly, after the conquest of the Songhai Empire and

conversion to Islam attempts to convert the infidel pagan tribes to Islam grew in momentum, many tribes had to seek sanctuary in the Savannah and tropical forest regions to safeguard their own religious beliefs and institutions. Among the latter were the Baule who now live in the Ivory Coast and Bron and the Akan who live in Ghana. In the Savannah region are, for example, the Bambara who belong to the larger group of Mandigo. The Bambara moved South after the fall of the Mali Empire and in turn established their own cultural traditions.

Art cultures in general have tended to centre around peoples who in pursuit of their own freedom and religious beliefs had established themselves in remote areas and inaccessible places. Where in the Northern Savannah regions art has triumphed it is generally attributed to the pagan tribes exhibiting a strong counter‑movement against Islam.

Most African tribes and communities have the concept of an omnipotent Force‑a supreme unseen being who has been responsible for all creation, whom they call God in several languages. The life of the individual and indeed the whole community is in his hands. For them, the departed ancestors were all brought into the world to play their part in the creation of the community and were recalled by the same supreme being. He is a Supreme God who manifests his power through various deities, like the sun, the moon, rivers and other bodies of the firmament.

The ancestors serve as intermediaries between Go, and the living. It is therefore easy to understand the importance of ancestors and the reverence that is attached to them.

This basic belief is generally held in most indigenous African communities and has been the